| Summary: | This chapter will focus on the state of the art regarding analytical techniques used for the online assessment of key parameters in bioprocesses, such as biomass, substrate, product, and by-product levels during cell cultivation. It starts by presenting different monitoring approaches including in situ probes and automated at-line systems. It then reviews spectroscopic and mass spectrometry-based methods. Throughout the chapter, alternative techniques such as photometric sensors and calorespirometric methods, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and biosensors are covered. A discussion on developments in software sensors is included.
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